The twelfth and thirteenth centuries saw a gradual reawakening of valid scientific investigation after the barren years of the Dark Ages. The first true university was founded in Bologna in the twelfth century, and a medical faculty was established there by 1156. By the end of the thirteenth century, the demand for accurate information was so great that the medical dissection of human corpses began in earnest. Anatomists at this time were still conditioned to revere the outdated notions of Aristotle and Galen, and if an autopsy revealed a deviation from prior teachings, the anatomists concluded that the body was abnormal.

The fourteenth century brought a more scientific attitude to the study of the human body. To some extent, artists, rather than scientists, set the pace in revealing new aspects on human anatomy Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was undoubtedly the most industrious artist, producing hundreds of anatomical drawings made from dissections; unfortunately he had little influence on the anatomists of his time.

Five years before the death of Leonardo, the true "Father of Anatomy" was born. This was Andreas Vesalius (15141564), who at the age of 29 published his seven-volume De humani corporis fabrica (On the Structure of the Human Body), in which he carefully integrated text and drawings made from dissections, setting anatomy on a new course toward the scientific method. (The drawings were made by Jan Calcar, a student of Titian.) Another significant scientific event occurred in the same year, 1543, when the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) published his view that the earth revolved around a stationary sun.

The publication of the Fabrica was a major scientific event because it was instrumental in overcoming the authority of the Catholic church. For the first time, anatomy was placed on an objective level, and Galen's inaccuracies were exposed. Unfortunately, Vesalius's ideas were originally rebuked by anatomists because they challenged Galen and others.

The Contributions of William Harvey

The English physician and anatomist William Harvey (1578-1657) studied at the University of Padua (the newly established center of medical research) several years after Vesalius taught there. In 1628, Harvey published An Anatomical Treatise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, in which he described for the first time how blood is pumped by the contractions of the heart, circulates throughout the body, and returns to the heart. Both the accurate plan of the circulation and the idea that the heart is a pump were enormous breakthroughs that helped overcome the primitive ideas of Aristotle and Galen once and for all. Although Harvey's discovery was attacked by Galen's steadfast followers, it was difficult to argue against Harvey's methods of first-hand observation and experimentation. Harvey had not only made a most important anatomical discovery, he had also demonstrated a logical and scientific approach that set the standard fofuture anatomical research. From then on, physicians and anatomists considered structure and function when investigating the human body. Such research was aided by microscopes, beginning with those produced by the Dutch microscopist, Antonie Van Leewenhoek (1632-1723), which enabled scientists to examine the cells, tissues, and fluids of the body.

Modern Anatomy

To many, gross human anatomy is associated with Gray's Anatomy, originally published by the English surgeon Sir Henry Gray in 1858. Since then the book has had several authors and has evolved into the current thirty-seventh edition in Great Britain and the thirtieth edition in the United States, each with its own character.

Radiological advances in the twentieth century have allowed scientists to make remarkable connections between anatomy and physiology, and researchers are integrating the study of anatomy with other disciplines, including biochemistry, genetics, and biophysics. Physicians now have access to advanced technology such as CAT and PET scanners, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), all of which go far beyond microscopy and x-rays. These techniques permit physicians to look inside the body without performing surgery, yet another major breakthrough in the history of anatomy.

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